Left Behind: West Virginia’s Wastewater Crises

Nestled amid the breathtaking mountains of the New River Gorge National Park & Preserve is a stark reality facing many marginalized communities in West Virginia. Beyond the serenity of nature and the thrills of outdoor adventure lie pockets of deep poverty, crumbling infrastructure, and struggles for basic necessities that many in our nation take for granted.

While West Virginia is known for its dramatic cliffs, lush forests, and winding rivers, a closer look reveals a systemic crisis that severely impacts the health and future of its most vulnerable residents, particularly those living in often-overlooked mobile home communities. Did you know that West Virginia has one of the highest rates of mobile home occupancy in the United States? As of 2023, mobile homes account for 15% of the state’s residential properties, painting a picture of a population that has turned to these affordable options amidst a dire housing landscape [1,2,3].

Tragically, the residents of these communities are not just grappling with the typical challenges of ownership; they are caught in a severe wastewater crisis. In McDowell County, known as the poorest county in West Virginia, a staggering 67% of households lack adequate wastewater treatment systems [1,4]. The dire circumstances are not merely a statistic— they resonate in the lives of families who rely on the alarming practice of discharging raw sewage directly into local waterways [1,4]. This reality poses grave risks to public health and the environment.

Life in these mobile home communities is a complex tapestry, woven with threads of resilience, neighborly support, and relentless hardship. For many residents, these homes represent the only path to ownership in a state where affordable housing options are increasingly scarce. With a homeownership rate of around 74% for mobile or manufactured housing, West Virginia stands out with one of the highest rates in the nation [3]. Yet, this achievement is bittersweet; for many, it comes with the burden of inadequate infrastructure that threatens their dignity and well-being.

As we journey into the heart of West Virginia’s mobile home communities, we must listen to the stories of those who call them home—the dreams they hold, the adversities they face, and the urgent need for solutions. It’s time to lift the veil on this crisis, to shine a light on the resilience of individuals and families striving for a better life, even as they navigate the often-overlooked challenges that define their daily existence. The shadows of systemic neglect underscore an urgent call to action for all of us—because no community should have to endure the pain of being left behind.

The Struggles Behind the Statistics

In West Virginia, the numbers tell a poignant story: approximately 18% of residents—about one in every 5.6—call mobile home communities their home [3]. These figures might seem abstract, but behind every statistic lies a human narrative, a testament to resilience in the face of hardship. For many, these communities serve as a vital lifeline, a sanctuary amidst economic turbulence. Mobile homes, priced between $42 and $65 per square foot [5,6], offer a crucial option for families battling financial instability. However, the reasons many find themselves in these neighborhoods often stem from adversity. Job losses in the coal industry, once the backbone of the region’s economy, have reverberated through households, pushing grandparents raising grandchildren, single parents, and individuals on fixed incomes to seek refuge in affordable housing as they navigate the stormy waters of financial uncertainty.

Yet, the promise of affordability comes with its own set of dire challenges. Residents face the daily realities of unreliable water systems, crumbling sewage infrastructure, and the looming threat of rising rents for the land they occupy. These conditions create a precarious existence—one where basic needs are often at stake, and the struggle for dignity continues.

The Perfect Storm of Challenges Facing Mobile Home Communities in West Virginia

As we dive deeper into the pressing issues affecting marginalized communities in West Virginia, it is crucial to highlight the complex interplay of geography, history, and systemic neglect that creates a perfect storm for mobile and manufactured home communities.

A Unique Set of Challenges

Rugged Terrain and Aging Infrastructure

West Virginia’s mountainous terrain presents unique obstacles to infrastructure development. For many residents, the price of this precarious geography is high: outdated and poorly maintained systems trap them in a cycle of water outages and sewage failures. A staggering statistic from the Virginia Center for Housing Research reveals the degree of this crisis: approximately 32% of the state's mobile and manufactured homes were built before 1980 [1]. This only scratches the surface of the problem, as an estimated 63% of those pre-1980 homes lack reinforced foundations designed to withstand flooding, heightening the risk of catastrophic collapse during landslides [7]. These numbers serve as more than just data; they are warnings of the decay lurking beneath the surface, architectural shells that house not only families but also the burdens of aging infrastructure on the brink of failure.

In the face of rugged terrain, the West Virginia Geological and Economic Survey further highlights the vulnerabilities inherent in hillside developments. Areas built on slopes are especially susceptible to "slow creep" and rapid earthflows, events that can wreak havoc on foundations, disrupt utilities, and obliterate access roads [8].

Economic Dependence and Decline

West Virginia ranks among the most federally dependent states in the nation. In the fiscal year 2025, a staggering 50.15% of the state's budget relies on federal funds, a stark figure that far surpasses the national average of 32.5% [9]. To put this in perspective, for every dollar that West Virginians contribute in federal taxes, they receive $2.72 in federal aid, making it the third-highest ratio nationally [9]. In recent years, West Virginia has faced the harsh consequences of a stagnant job market. The state witnessed a decline of 1,600 nonfarm jobs in 2024, a trend that poses serious questions about its economic future. The state is grappling with stagnant nonfarm employment, having seen a decline of 1,600 jobs in 2024 [10]. In 2010, the coal industry employed about 56,000 individuals; yet by 2023, that number plummeted to just 14,014 [10].

Limited Access to Clean Water and Sanitation

Many residents lack access to public water and sewer systems, relying instead on private wells and septic tanks, which are prone to failure and contamination, especially in areas affected by mining. According to the American Community Survey (ACS), a seemingly small percentage—0.2% of occupied housing units in West Virginia—lack complete plumbing facilities [11]. However, this figure likely conceals a more significant issue, particularly among mobile home residents, where data collection gaps tend to obscure the true state of living conditions.

Geographic Isolation and Lack of Services

West Virginia is one of the most geographically isolated states, with limited access to vital services such as healthcare, education, and broadband. This isolation is especially pronounced in the rural communities where mobile and manufactured homes are prevalent. By 2030, experts project a physician shortage of 14% in the state [12], exacerbated by high medical student debt levels averaging $191,890 and the risk of closure for 21% of rural hospitals [13]. Seventeen counties in West Virginia have no regular public transit services [14]. Even for those who could rely on public transportation, its usage has plummeted significantly in recent years [14]. For individuals without access to a vehicle —a staggering reality for a notable percentage of the population—this lack of mobility can force them to stay confined to their homes, disconnected from vital resources [15].

Compounding these challenges is West Virginia's food accessibility crisis. The state ranks highest in the nation for car-less populations living far from grocery stores, leaving many residents facing a daily struggle [16]. Approximately 36% of West Virginians must drive ten miles or more just to reach a grocery store, contributing to a growing food insecurity issue that affects over 15% of the population [17].

To add to this landscape of isolation, West Virginia ranks 46th nationally in terms of internet access [4], [17]. Nearly 30% of the state’s residents cannot afford adequate broadband service, exacerbating the digital divide that hampers their ability to connect with educational resources, healthcare services, and opportunities for advocacy and change. In an age when so much is accomplished online, the inability to access the internet serves as a further barrier, stifling the voices of those who desperately need to be heard [4,17].

Systemic Underinvestment

In West Virginia, the struggle to repair, replace, or connect public sewage systems in mobile home communities through state programs like the On-Site Systems Loan Program (OSLP), which allocates only $500,000 annually, is starkly evident [1]. This limited funding serves only 50 to 100 households each year, underscoring the vast unmet demand for assistance within the community.

While federal initiatives, such as the USDA's Section 504 Program, aim to aid rural areas, many are inadvertently left behind due to the exclusion of localities with populations exceeding 10,000. The West Virginia Housing Development Fund (WVHDF) offers financing options through programs like Homeownership and Movin’ Up programs [18,19], yet systemic barriers persist. For many, income limits that cap eligibility at 80% of the Area Median Income (AMI) effectively exclude a significant portion of mobile home residents, especially in high-cost counties where living expenses are rising [20].

Compounding these challenges is the growing influence of institutional investors in West Virginia's housing landscape. Currently, 41% of the state's mobile home parks are owned by these entities, which often implement practices that hinder community investment [21]. The average lot rent has surged by a staggering 127% between 2015 and 2025, rising from $85 to $193 per month [21]. These increases put a strain on the budgets of families who are already struggling with economic instability.

Regulatory Loopholes

In West Virginia, a series of regulatory loopholes has created a climate of systemic underinvestment in mobile home communities. One glaring example is the state's zoning code exemptions, which have rendered a staggering 62% of existing single-wide mobile homes non-compliant [7]. This lack of adherence to standards not only undermines the integrity of the housing these families rely on but also perpetuates a cycle of neglect that is difficult to break.

The absence of federal mandates for regular septic system inspections under the Clean Water Act compounds this issue. This regulatory gap allows failing septic systems to go unchecked, posing significant public health risks. Alarmingly, nearly 50% of septic systems located near impaired waters lack the necessary oversight, allowing potentially hazardous conditions to persist for extended periods [22].

Climate Change

In West Virginia, climate change is exacerbating the vulnerabilities faced by mobile home communities, posing substantial risks to health and safety. Increased rainfall and rising groundwater levels are overwhelming septic systems, creating potentially hazardous conditions. Since 1950, the frequency of extreme weather events has surged by 37%, intensifying the challenges faced by these communities [23,24].

About 23% of the state’s mobile home parks are located within FEMA-designated Special Flood Hazard Areas, increasing the risk of septic failures caused by groundwater inundation [25]. This issue has been worsened by rising sea levels in coastal regions, making traditional septic systems in West Virginia increasingly ineffective. Estimates indicate that the rate of septic system failures is increasing by 15-20% annually [26].

Adding to the distressing picture, groundwater recharge rates have increased by 19% since 2000, diminishing the soil's capacity to absorb excess water [23,24]. Moreover, the duration of soil moisture saturation during the spring months has increased by 32%, leading to delays in septic drainage and heightening the risk of contamination.

As we tackle these critical issues, it is essential to advocate for sustainable solutions that ensure the health and well-being of West Virginia’s mobile home communities in the face of the growing threats posed by climate change.

The Human Cost: Striking for Dignity in West Virginia’s Mobile Home Communities

The wastewater crisis isn't just an inconvenience; it's a daily threat to the health, livelihoods, and dignity of West Virginia's most vulnerable families.

For many families in these communities, turning on the faucet can lead to a chilling realization: the water flowing from it may harbor dangerous pathogens. Research by Wells and colleagues highlights the risks of untreated or inadequately treated wastewater, which can contaminate drinking water sources and lead to significant health hazards [27]. Gastrointestinal infections linked to this contamination have emerged as an important public health concern, particularly for mobile home residents who often face precarious living conditions. In West Virginia, pathogens like Salmonella, Campylobacter, norovirus, and hepatitis A are not just abstract statistics; they manifest as debilitating illnesses that disrupt the daily lives of families already facing challenges. In McDowell County, where an alarming 67% of homes lack proper wastewater treatment, the practice of "straight-piping" raw sewage into local streams has become alarmingly common, correlating with increasing rates of gastrointestinal diseases, as documented by the Center for Coastal Resources Management [22].

The implications of inadequate wastewater management extend beyond gastrointestinal health. Research conducted by Cantor and colleagues in Central Appalachia reveals that high levels of Escherichia coli in local waterways are directly linked to untreated household waste. Poorly managed wastewater not only exacerbates gastrointestinal problems but also facilitates the spread of respiratory infections and skin ailments, broadening the primary health challenges that require immediate attention. Addressing these complex issues demands a comprehensive strategy that prioritizes infrastructure improvements, enhances surveillance systems, and tackles the socioeconomic factors that leave these communities vulnerable. By utilizing insights from wastewater surveillance and committing to effective management practices, public health officials can mitigate disease burdens and protect those most at risk [28,29].

Economically, West Virginia’s mobile home communities reflect a broader narrative of decline. Once a powerhouse of coal production, the state's economic landscape has suffered significantly due to the contraction of the coal industry. Shifts in energy markets, increased competition from natural gas, and regulatory pressures have left many families struggling for stability. The decline of coal mining jobs, detailed by Santopietro and Zipper, has sent shock waves through local economies, resulting in diminished job opportunities and rising poverty rates compared to non-Appalachian regions. The consequences are stark: local businesses are failing or shuttering, tax revenues are dwindling, and the social fabric of communities is beginning to fray [30,31]. Rural coalfield counties in Appalachia—West Virginia included—now grapple with lower income levels, higher unemployment rates, and stagnating economic growth relative to other regions [30]. This economic vulnerability is compounded by a historical dependency on a single industry, leaving residents with dwindling economic diversification [32].

Add to these the profound mental health implications of living with untreated wastewater. The burden of uncertainty regarding access to clean water and sanitation can lead to anxiety, depression, and pervasive stress among mobile home residents. The compounding financial strain and social isolation can yield long-lasting negative effects on mental health. While extensive literature exists on the relationship between water insecurity, poor sanitation, and mental health, a significant gap remains in understanding these dynamics, specifically in West Virginia's mobile home communities. To tackle these intertwined challenges effectively, we must embrace a holistic approach that prioritizes sustainable water and sanitation solutions, alleviates financial pressure, and fosters community psychosocial support.

Finding Solutions: A Path Forward for Forgotten Communities in West Virginia

West Virginia provides several grant opportunities and financial assistance programs to help mobile home residents tackle issues related to their wastewater systems. These programs, overseen by state agencies, federal partnerships, and local initiatives, offer essential support for repairing, replacing, or connecting failing septic systems to public infrastructure.

The  West Virginia Clean Water State Revolving Fund (CWSRF) is a vital lifeline for rural and low-income communities, bringing together state and federal resources to support essential water quality initiatives [33]. By converting loans into grants that do not need to be repaid, CWSRF opens doors for crucial repairs and replacements of failing septic systems, enabling communities to thrive. With the added benefit of 100% principal forgiveness for green infrastructure projects, mobile home communities can collaborate with local governments or nonprofits to create meaningful, lasting change in their lives [33]. However, while the CWSRF offers a promising pathway to improving wastewater management, there are challenges in navigating the application process. Mobile home residents cannot directly apply for these funds; they rely on local government sponsors to advocate on their behalf. Furthermore, the limited availability of funding and the intense competition can make securing assistance particularly difficult. Because the process is often complex and requires specialized knowledge, residents typically need support from their local government or an experienced intermediary organization to help guide them through it. For many, the first step involves reaching out to their local Public Service District (PSD) or municipality to enquire about potential sponsorship for their application. By fostering these partnerships and creating a solid support network, we can empower mobile home communities to access the resources they need to ensure safe and effective wastewater management.

The Emergency Community Water Assistance Grants (ECWAG) serve as a critical resource for communities facing urgent threats to their drinking water quality, including septic system failures. These grants can provide up to $1,000,000 to help address these emergencies [34]. To qualify for this assistance, mobile home residents in rural areas with populations of 10,000 or fewer must demonstrate an imminent risk of water contamination from failing septic systems. The available funds can be used for essential repairs, replacements, or connections to public water systems during crises such as chemical spills or disease outbreaks [34]. While ECWAG aims to tackle the pressing water infrastructure challenges faced by communities experiencing drastic declines in water quality, it does not specifically target septic system failures or the broader wastewater treatment needs prevalent in mobile home communities. Additionally, the program's ability to operate without requiring a federal disaster declaration enhances its accessibility for communities dealing with local water crises. However, it is important to note that data on specific implementations and outcomes for mobile home communities remains limited in public records, highlighting a gap in awareness and access to this vital support. By enhancing outreach and assistance tailored to the unique needs of mobile home residents, we can ensure that this critical resource reaches those who need it most.

Additionally, the Community Development Block Grant Mitigation (CDBG-MIT) program embodies a significant federal commitment to disaster risk reduction, allocating substantial funding to West Virginia to address critical infrastructure vulnerabilities, particularly in mobile home communities [35]. Although comprehensive data regarding specific outcomes for mobile home residents facing wastewater crises is limited, this program facilitates essential large-scale infrastructure upgrades, most notably, replacing outdated septic systems in flood-prone mobile home parks. Under CDBG regulations, clear eligibility criteria exist for mobile home assistance, allowing for the rehabilitation of owner-occupied mobile homes deemed part of the community’s permanent housing stock [35]. However, while CDBG-MIT provides crucial support for disaster mitigation and recovery, mobile home owners in West Virginia face a range of stringent challenges. These include strict requirements concerning the age and location of homes, documentation hurdles, local zoning restrictions, infrastructure limitations, and ongoing insurance mandates [36,37]. Navigating these obstacles often necessitates a combination of legal, technical, and financial assistance, as well as coordinated efforts to reform local regulatory frameworks and enhance site infrastructure. By focusing on these areas of improvement, we can create a more supportive environment for mobile home residents and ensure they have access to the resources they need for a safer, more resilient future.

Organizations like the Environmental Finance Center Network (EFCN) play a pivotal role in enhancing the resilience of small water and wastewater systems, local governments, and community organizations by providing essential technical assistance, training, and capacity-building support [38]. While the EFCN's work may not directly target individual mobile home residents, it significantly benefits these communities by strengthening the systems that serve them. By securing funding, improving management, and facilitating infrastructure upgrades, the EFCN helps create a more reliable and efficient wastewater management landscape. EFCN experts often provide personalized guidance to operators and community leaders, helping them navigate the complexities of funding applications for state and federal grants. This support is crucial for improving wastewater systems, particularly in mobile home parks, as it can lead to enhanced services and better living conditions for residents [38]. In West Virginia, the EFCN has engaged in collaborative initiatives with county public service districts, offering technical assistance to communities facing regulatory and financial challenges, and participating in state-level advisory committees and funding initiatives [38]. A notable example includes their partnership with Berkeley County, where they conducted a stormwater financing feasibility study. This study empowered the community to identify solutions for addressing stormwater issues and develop a robust budget and financing strategy [39]. While such projects may not focus exclusively on mobile home residents, they exemplify the EFCN's commitment to bolstering local infrastructure planning and funding. Despite these advancements, mobile home residents in West Virginia continue to encounter systemic barriers when seeking support from the EFCN. These challenges are rooted in structural, financial, and geographic limitations that disproportionately impact rural and low-income communities. Addressing these obstacles is essential for ensuring that all residents have equitable access to the resources and support needed for sustainable water and wastewater management.

Together Toward a Better Future

As we navigate the path forward to uplift forgotten communities in West Virginia, it is essential that we grasp these opportunities for positive change. Together, we can create a sustainable, equitable future for all West Virginians. By remaining informed and actively engaged, we stand ready to support initiatives that foster hope, empowerment, and resilience in our communities.

Why This Matters to Everyone

The challenges endured by marginalized communities in West Virginia are not just local problems; they are a poignant reflection of a broader national narrative—one where prosperity and opportunity remain stubbornly out of reach for many. As we pause to consider the hardships faced daily by our fellow West Virginians, we must acknowledge the looming threats posed by fluctuating federal funding, which could result in reduced transfers to states, cuts to vital social programs, and substantial rollbacks in healthcare and education funding. These potential reductions, coupled with environmental deregulation, threaten to further deepen the struggles of those who already face daily battles for basic necessities such as clean water, adequate sanitation, and safe housing.

This is a fight for dignity—a fight that resonates beyond the borders of West Virginia and speaks to our shared humanity. When one community struggles, the implications ripple outwards, challenging our collective conscience and calling for our engagement. The reality is stark: addressing these acute issues necessitates a resolute commitment to social justice, economic development, and environmental stewardship.

Let’s be clear: this isn't solely their burden to bear. It is a collective responsibility that beckons our compassion, as well as our action. A thriving West Virginia means a thriving nation, and it’s time we recognize that our fates are intertwined. Together, we can forge a path forward that ensures dignity, opportunity, and hope for every resident of this beautiful state.

Concluding Thoughts

The challenges faced by marginalized communities in West Virginia are complex and deeply rooted in systemic inequalities. However, we have the power to change this narrative. By working together to tackle these critical issues, we can create a more equitable and sustainable future for every resident of the Mountain State.

Now is the time to shine a light on these overlooked communities and ensure they are not left behind. As Environmental Justice Advocate Catherine Coleman Flowers emphasizes, a multi-pronged approach is essential. We must advocate for federal funding reform that reallocates existing infrastructure funds to support mobile home communities directly, circumventing state governments that have historically misallocated resources.

Moreover, establishing grant programs for decentralized wastewater systems tailored to rural areas, such as composting toilets and anaerobic digesters, can provide immediate and effective solutions. We also need to advocate for climate-resilient designs that require elevated septic systems in flood-prone areas and invest in wetland restoration to absorb floodwaters effectively.

Importantly, community-led oversight is crucial. Training local residents to monitor water quality and champion infrastructure upgrades empowers the community and builds resilience from within. Flowers urges bipartisan support for the Decentralized Wastewater Equity Act, which would allocate $15 billion over the next ten years to deploy decentralized wastewater systems in underserved communities. This legislation also includes tax incentives for landlords who upgrade their septic systems and funding for health impact studies, ultimately ensuring that all voices are heard in the fight for justice.

Together, we can make a difference. Let’s stand in solidarity with our neighbors and take action to create a future where everyone in West Virginia has access to the resources they need to thrive.

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